When Equivalence is Not Enough: Translation Adjustments of Philosophical Text in Comic Form

The tenet of good translation is to achieve idiomatic equivalence. However, when the translation work is going to be published, there should be some adjustments, either lexical or structural. The reasons for adjustment might be various: for politeness, conciseness, etc. This article discusses the translation adjustments of a Chinese philosophical book: The Sayings of Zhuang Zi by comparing the original translation by the translator with the published book which has been edited by publisher's editor. The objectives of this study are to find different types of translation adjustment made by the editor and to analyze the possible reasons for the adjustment.


INTRODUCTION
The main purpose of translation is undoubtedly finding an equivalent of the source text in the target text. Catfort (1965:20) writes "translation may be defined as follows: The replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language (TL)," and maintains that "the central problem of translation practice is finding TL translation equivalents" (1965:12). Similarly, Nida (1964) also emphasized on the importance of finding the equivalence in translation. Nida even distinguished between formal and dynamic equivalence. Formal equivalence is the closest possible match of form and content between source text and target text, while dynamic equivalence is the equivalence of effect on the target reader.
Finding equivalence in the target language is not an easy task for a translator. A translator needs to employ different translation strategies or techniques to find the closest possible equivalent. The use of different strategies depends on the level they occur: at word level, above word level, grammatical, textual, and pragmatic equivalences (Baker, 1992). Baker (1992, pp 26-42) even made a taxonomy of translation strategies, which include: translation by a more general word, translation by a more neutral word, translation by cultural substitution, translation using a loan word, translation by paraphrasing , translation by omission, and translation by illustration.
Baker's taxonomy is of great benefit for a translator. However, it would be a translator's own decision to make the most appropriate translation for a piece of text. Newmark (1998) said that translation is a decision making process and a problem-solving task. It is a decision making process because the translator always has to decide among many choices. As Hatim & Mason (1990:12) say, translation is a matter of choice, but choice is always motivated: omissions, addition and alterations may indeed be justified but only in relation to intended meaning." It is also a problem solving task as the translator is always "trying to solve a thousand small problems in the context of a large one." (Newmark 1988:8).
When a piece of translation, say, one novel of Twilight series, is going to be published by the target language publisher, the task of the translator has finished the moment s/he sends the translation work to the publisher. It is now the responsibility of the publisher, in this case represented by the book editor, to decide whether the translated work is suitable for the target language reader. An editor is a person who prepares a book to be published by checking and correcting the mistakes, making improvements, etc. (Oxford Advanced Dictionary, 2010). Again, the editor must undertake the decision making process and problem solving task, even though s/he does not have to think about the translation strategies as they had been done by the translator.
The task of an editor can be equalized to a translator assessor, in which s/he has to assess whether the translation fulfill at least three criteria below: a) Nature of SL message; b) Purpose and intent of SL producer/writer; c) Type of audience (as cited by Al-Qinay, 2000). However, if the work to be translated is in the form of comic/cartoon strip, another criterion should be added: the limited space. In comic strip, the original words are contained in a balloon shape. The translation, therefore, should also fit in the word balloon.
The limitation of space is especially problematic in the translation of English into Indonesian, since Indonesian is known to have long words. A simple example, such as "I love you" (8 letters) should be translated into "Aku mencintaimu" (11 letters) or "Aku cinta padamu" (14 letters). To solve this and many other problems related to the criteria above, an editor has to apply different techniques or adjustments to make the translation "publishable".

RESEARCH METHODS
This article discusses several adjustments that the editor makes when editing the translation work. The material used for this study is the Chinese philosophical text: Zhuang Zi which was written in Chinese by Tsai Chih Chung, translated into English by Goh Beng Choo, and later translated into Indonesian by Clara Herlina. The English version is published by Asiapac Singapore and the Indonesian version is published by Elex Media.
The analysis of the translation adjustments is only based on two parameters as stated by Hatim and Mason (1990) and Newmark (1988), i.e.: 1) Lexical Properties: jargon, idioms, loanwords, catch phrases, collocation, paraphrases, connotations and emotive aspects of lexical meaning; 2) Grammatical/syntactic Equivalence: word order, sentence structure, cleaving, number, gender and person (agreement), modality, tense and aspect. There are two main objectives of this study: first, to identify the type of adjustments made by the editor; and second, to analyze the possible reasons for the adjustment.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results of the analysis will be divided into two main parts: lexical properties adjustments and grammatical/syntactic adjustments. Lexical adjustments deal with the semantic aspect of a particular word such as synonym or antonym; while the grammatical adjustments deal with the syntactic aspects such as word order or sentence structure. Different techniques of adjustment will be discussed either for lexical or grammatical part. For easy reference, these abbreviations will be used: OS = original sentence, TS = translator's sentence, ES = editor's sentence.

Lexical Properties Adjustment
The analysis of lexical adjustment is based on Baker's (1992) taxonomy of translation strategies while also incorporating semantic analysis of sense relation.

Replacement
This technique involves replacing a word with another word which has similar meaning or different meaning. Table 1 Replacement with synonym OS Therefore, feelings of anger, sadness and joy or happiness is man-made and not natural TS Maka rasa marah, sedih, gembira atau bahagia adalah buatan manusia dan tidak alami. ES Jadi rasa marah, sedih, gembira atau bahagia adalah buatan manusia dan tidak alami.    OS The minute these trees grew as thick as a fist' girth, TS Ketika pohon pohon ini setebal kepalan ES Ketika batangnya setebal kepalan Table 6 Replacement with more scientific word OS With the secret formula, troops of the Wu state were spared from catching chilblain* TS Dengan formula rahasia itu, pasukan negara Wu terbebas dari radang dingin* ES Dengan formula rahasia itu, pasukan negara Wu terbebas dari perniosis The obvious reason for replacement is to use more formal word and more appropriate word. For example, the translator made a mistake in translating 'sparrow' with wallet ('swallow'), so it is changed into pipit.

Omission
This technique involves deleting the translated word. Table 7 Omission of implied word OS From then on, Zhuang Zi shifted his vision away from worldly matters TS Sejak saat itu, Zhuang Zi mengalihkan visinya dari masalah duniawi ES Sejak itu, Zhuang Zi mengalihkan visinya dari masalah duniawi Table 8 Omission of hyponym OS The music of flute made by man comes either from the flute or the panpipe. TS Musik suling buatan manusia berasal dari suling atau pipa. ES Musik suling buatan manusia berasal dari suling.  The omission technique is used when the meaning of the word is implied by the context or by the illustration. For example the word 'fish' is not translated because the picture shows that the fish is talking. Similarly, when two words have the same meaning like 'transient or transitional', only one word should be translated.

Addition
This technique involves adding article, quantifier or affix to the translated word. The resulted word still has the same part of speech as the translated word. This technique can also mean adding word which does not exist either in the source text or in the translation.

OS
It was an era in which the strong states devoured the weak, the majority overpowered the minority; a chaotic and pain-stricken era.
The addition technique is basically used to make a word more standard or formal, for example by adding prefix in the word ukur becomes mengukur, even though the meaning is still the same.

Borrowing
This technique involves using the original English word, or it is not translated into Indonesian.  The borrowing technique or keeping the original source language word might have two purposes. The use of 'parasol' instead of payung (umbrella) may prevent ambiguity resulting from the word itself. Payung is used to cover ourselves from the rain, while 'parasol' is the name of the tree which looks like an umbrella. On the other hand, the use of 'orator' indicates that Indonesian might have been familiar with this word and do not consider it as a foreign word.

Stylistic Change
This technique involves the change of word form for stylistic reason, such as more formal form.  The use of more formal form is done to indicate status relationship between the speaker and the interlocutor in the story. While the translator used the pronoun kau, the editor changed it into anda because in this context, the speaker is the wheel-maker and the interlocutor is the king. Anda is considered more formal and appropriate for this situation.

Grammatical Adjustments
The analysis of grammatical adjustment is based on Newmark's account of transposition or shift. Newmark (1988:85) defined transposition as a translation procedure involving a change in the grammatical form from SL to TL. However, the object of analysis of this study is the translator's sentences and the editor's sentences, both of which are in TL (Indonesian).

Word Class Shift
This involves the change of one part of speech into another.  TS Bagi Konfusius, Lao Zi telah mencapai Tao alam dan punya kapasitas untuk perubahan. ES Bagi Konfusius, Lao Zi telah mencapai Tao alam dan punya kapasitas untuk berubah.
These changes mostly deal with formality, in which the edited translations are considered more formal.

Phrase Shift
This involves the change of one type of phrase into another. TS Tahukah kau bila ada standar umum yang bisa diterapkan pada pemerolehan pengetahuan? ES Tahukah kau bila ada standar umum yang bisa diterapkan dalam memperoleh pengetahuan? Table 22 Change from noun phrase into verb phrase OS but it doesn't have the freedom it enjoys in the open TS tapi ia tak punya kebebasan yang dinikmatinya di tempat terbuka. ES tapi tak bisa menikmati kebebasan Table 23 Change from a noun phrase into a verb phrase OS And a large sea-shell to hold its urine. TS Dan kerang besar untuk menampung air seninya ES Dan menampung air seninya dengan kerang besar These changes also deal with formality, in which the edited translations are considered more formal.

Form Shift
This involves the change one syntactic unit to another, for example a word is changed into a phrase or a clause, and vice versa. Table 24 Change from noun clause into a noun phrase OS That is because the bird may be well preened and fed in the cage TS Itu karena ayam itu mungkin dipelihara dan diberi makan di sangkar, ES Penyebabnya ayam itu mungkin dipelihara dan diberi makan di sangkar,   ES Bila seseorang menggunakan metode yang salah untuk memintanya bersikap baik, salah satunya mungkin menciptakan krisis. Table 28 Change from an adverbial clause into an adverbial phrase (reduced clause) OS It's because when the tiger is struggling with its prey, it is highly provoked. TS Karena ketika macan sedang berjuang dengan mangsanya, ia sangat terangsang. ES Karena ketika berjuang memangsa korbannya, macan sangat agresif. Table 29 Change from a noun phrase into a noun clause OS Tell me your reason, otherwise I shall order your death! TS Sebutkan alasanmu , kalau tidak kuperintahkan kematianmu. ES Sebutkan alasanmu , kalau tidak kuperintahkan orang membunuhmu! These changes also deal with formality, in which the edited translations are considered more formal.

Word Order Shift
This involves the change of word order in the phrase or sentence. ES orang bodoh selalu merasa mereka tercerahkan yang akhirnya menjadikan mereka bodoh.
These changes also deal with formality, in which the edited translations are considered more formal.

Omission
This involves the deletion of a whole phrase, clause or sentence. Table 32 Omission of the subject and verb OS I'm reading the great words of a sage. TS Aku baca kata kata agung orang bijak. ES Kata kata agung orang bijak. Omission techniques are mostly done because the meaning of the sentence is already implied. For example is the sentence 'Talking of big the Eastern Sea is really big'. The phrase 'talking of big' is not translated because the sentence following it discusses that 'the Eastern Sea is big'; therefore it is considered redundant. Beside implied meaning, omission of the translation can also save a few spaces.

Pattern Shift
This involves the change of sentence pattern from one pattern to another.

CONCLUSION
The translators' tasks end when they submit their translations to the publisher. It is now the responsibility of the publisher, herewith represented by the book editor to decide whether those translation works are suitable for the targeted readers. When comparing my submitted translation and the published book, I found that the editor has done a lot of adjustments. Basically, the adjustments made by the editor do not change the meaning of the translation; therefore it is not the problem of finding the equivalence anymore. There are five types of lexical adjustments found in this study, i.e. replacement, omission, addition, borrowing, and stylistic change. For structural adjustments, there are six types, i.e. word class shift, phrase shift, form shift, word order shift, omission, and sentence pattern change. Overall, the editor makes more structural adjustments than lexical ones. Several reasons are identified, such as the use of more standard and more appropriate words, to make the sentence more concise thus saving more space. However, there's a question that I'd like to pose: as a translator, should we only strife for finding equivalence?